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D (programming language)

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other programming languages named D, see <a href="D_(disambiguation)#Computing" class="mw-disambig" title="D (disambiguation)">D (disambiguation) § Computing</a>. For other uses, see <a href="D_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="D (disambiguation)">D (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#e0e0e0;">D</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Paradigm</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Multi-paradigm_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-paradigm programming language">Multi-paradigm</a>: <a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional</a>, <a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">imperative</a>, <a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Software_design" title="Software design">Designed by</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Walter_Bright" title="Walter Bright">Walter Bright</a>, <a href="Andrei_Alexandrescu" title="Andrei Alexandrescu">Andrei Alexandrescu</a> (since 2007)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Software_developer" class="mw-redirect" title="Software developer">Developer</a></th><td class="infobox-data organiser"><a href="D_Language_Foundation" title="D Language Foundation">D Language Foundation</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">First appeared</th><td class="infobox-data">8 December 2001 (2001-12-08)<a href="#cite_note-D1_changelog1-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release life cycle">Stable release</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="margin:0px;">2.111.0<a href="#cite_note-wikidata-829582f5a19372246e351f3304a7bec7c68e1165-v20-2">[2]</a>

/ 1 April 2025 (1 April 2025)</div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">

</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Type_system" title="Type system">Typing discipline</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Inferred_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferred typing">Inferred</a>, <a href="Static_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Static typing">static</a>, <a href="Strong_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong typing">strong</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">OS</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="FreeBSD" title="FreeBSD">FreeBSD</a>, <a href="Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>, <a href="MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a>, <a href="Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Software_license" title="Software license">License</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Boost_Software_License" class="mw-redirect" title="Boost Software License">Boost</a><a href="#cite_note-D-frontend-license-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-boost-backend-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Filename_extension" title="Filename extension">Filename extensions</a></th><td class="infobox-data">.d, .di, .dd<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dlang.org">dlang.org</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Major <a href="Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language implementation">implementations</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/dlang/dmd">DMD</a> (<a href="Reference_implementation" title="Reference implementation">reference implementation</a>), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gcc.gnu.org/">GCC</a>,

<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdcproject.org/">GDC</a>,

<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/ldc-developers/ldc">LDC</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/SDC-Developers/SDC">SDC</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Influenced by</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a>,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, <a href="C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a>, <a href="Eiffel_(programming_language)" title="Eiffel (programming language)">Eiffel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Influenced</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Genie, MiniD (since renamed Croc), <a href="Qore_(programming_language)" title="Qore (programming language)">Qore</a>, <a href="Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming language)">Swift</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Swift_-_Getting_the_location_of_a_caller-10">[10]</a> <a href="Vala_(programming_language)" title="Vala (programming language)">Vala</a>, <a href="C%2B%2B11" title="C++11">C++11</a>, <a href="C%2B%2B14" title="C++14">C++14</a>, <a href="C%2B%2B17" title="C++17">C++17</a>, <a href="C%2B%2B20" title="C++20">C++20</a>, <a href="Go_(programming_language)" title="Go (programming language)">Go</a>, <a href="C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a>, others</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below hlist" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 3px;">

<ul><li> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/D_Programming" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:D Programming">D Programming</a> at Wikibooks</li></ul>

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D, also known as dlang, is a <a href="Multi-paradigm_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-paradigm programming language">multi-paradigm</a> <a href="System_programming_language" title="System programming language">system</a> <a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a> created by <a href="Walter_Bright" title="Walter Bright">Walter Bright</a> at <a href="Digital_Mars" title="Digital Mars">Digital Mars</a> and released in 2001. <a href="Andrei_Alexandrescu" title="Andrei Alexandrescu">Andrei Alexandrescu</a> joined the design and development effort in 2007. Though it originated as a re-engineering of <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, D is now a very different language. As it has developed, it has drawn inspiration from other <a href="High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming languages</a>. Notably, it has been influenced by <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a>, <a href="C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a>, and <a href="Eiffel_(programming_language)" title="Eiffel (programming language)">Eiffel</a>.

The D language reference describes it as follows:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">D is a general-purpose systems programming language with a C-like syntax that compiles to native code. It is statically typed and supports both automatic (garbage collected) and manual memory management. D programs are structured as modules that can be compiled separately and linked with external libraries to create native libraries or executables.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Features">Features</h2></div>

D is not <a href="Source-code_compatibility" title="Source-code compatibility">source-compatible</a> with C and C++ source code in general. However, any code that is legal in both C/C++ and D should behave in the same way.

Like C++, D has <a href="Closure_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Closure (computer science)">closures</a>, <a href="Anonymous_functions" class="mw-redirect" title="Anonymous functions">anonymous functions</a>, <a href="Compile-time_function_execution" title="Compile-time function execution">compile-time function execution</a>, <a href="Design_by_contract" title="Design by contract">design by contract</a>, ranges, built-in container iteration concepts, and <a href="Type_inference" title="Type inference">type inference</a>. D's declaration, statement and expression <a href="Syntax" title="Syntax">syntaxes</a> also closely match those of C++.

Unlike C++, D also implements <a href="Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" title="Garbage collection (computer science)">garbage collection</a>, <a href="First-class_citizen" title="First-class citizen">first class</a> <a href="Array_data_type" class="mw-redirect" title="Array data type">arrays</a> (<code>std::array</code> in C++ are technically not first class), <a href="Array_slicing" title="Array slicing">array slicing</a>, <a href="Nested_function" title="Nested function">nested functions</a> and <a href="Lazy_evaluation" title="Lazy evaluation">lazy evaluation</a>. D uses Java-style single inheritance with <a href="Interface_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interface (computer science)">interfaces</a> and <a href="Mixin" title="Mixin">mixins</a> rather than C++-style <a href="Multiple_inheritance" title="Multiple inheritance">multiple inheritance</a>.

D is a systems programming language. Like C++, and unlike application languages such as <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> and <a href="C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a>, D supports <a href="Low-level_programming_language" title="Low-level programming language">low-level programming</a>, including <a href="Inline_assembler" title="Inline assembler">inline assembler</a>. Inline assembler allows programmers to enter machine-specific <a href="Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly code</a> within standard D code. System programmers use this method to access the low-level features of the <a href="Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">processor</a> that are needed to run programs that interface directly with the underlying <a href="Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a>, such as <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a> and <a href="Device_driver" title="Device driver">device drivers</a>. Low-level programming is also used to write higher <a href="Computer_performance" title="Computer performance">performance</a> code than would be produced by a <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a>.

D supports <a href="Function_overloading" title="Function overloading">function overloading</a> and <a href="Operator_overloading" title="Operator overloading">operator overloading</a>. Symbols (<a href="Function_(computer_programming)" title="Function (computer programming)">functions</a>, <a href="Variable_(computer_science)" title="Variable (computer science)">variables</a>, <a href="Class_(computer_programming)" title="Class (computer programming)">classes</a>) can be declared in any order; <a href="Forward_declaration" title="Forward declaration">forward declarations</a> are not needed.

In D, text character strings are arrays of characters, and arrays in D are bounds-checked.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> D has <a href="First-class_citizen" title="First-class citizen">first class types</a> for complex and imaginary numbers.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Programming_paradigms">Programming paradigms</h3></div>

D supports five main <a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">programming paradigms</a>:

<ul><li><a href="Concurrent_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Concurrent programming language">Concurrent</a> (<a href="Actor_model" title="Actor model">actor model</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">Imperative</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">Functional</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">Metaprogramming</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Imperative">Imperative</h4></div>

Imperative programming in D is almost identical to that in C. Functions, data, statements, declarations and expressions work just as they do in C, and the C runtime library may be accessed directly. On the other hand, unlike C, D's <a href="Foreach" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreach"><code>foreach</code></a> loop construct allows looping over a collection. D also allows <a href="Nested_function" title="Nested function">nested functions</a>, which are functions that are declared inside another function, and which may access the enclosing function's <a href="Local_variable" title="Local variable">local variables</a>.

void main() {

int multiplier = 10;

int scaled(int x) {

return x * multiplier;

}

foreach (i; 0 .. 10) {

writefln("Hello, world %d! scaled = %d", i, scaled(i));

}

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Object-oriented">Object-oriented</h4></div>

Object-oriented programming in D is based on a single <a href="Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">inheritance</a> hierarchy, with all classes derived from class Object. D does not support multiple inheritance; instead, it uses Java-style <a href="Interface_(Java)" title="Interface (Java)">interfaces</a>, which are comparable to C++'s pure abstract classes, and <a href="Mixin" title="Mixin">mixins</a>, which separate common functionality from the inheritance hierarchy. D also allows the defining of static and final (non-virtual) methods in interfaces.

Interfaces and inheritance in D support <a href="Covariance_and_contravariance_(computer_science)" title="Covariance and contravariance (computer science)">covariant types</a> for return types of overridden methods.

D supports type forwarding, as well as optional custom <a href="Dynamic_dispatch" title="Dynamic dispatch">dynamic dispatch</a>.

Classes (and interfaces) in D can contain <a href="Class_invariant" title="Class invariant">invariants</a> which are automatically checked before and after entry to public methods, in accordance with the <a href="Design_by_contract" title="Design by contract">design by contract</a> methodology.

Many aspects of classes (and structs) can be <a href="Type_introspection" title="Type introspection">introspected</a> automatically at compile time (a form of <a href="Reflective_programming" title="Reflective programming">reflective programming</a> (reflection) using <code>type traits</code>) and at run time (RTTI / <code>TypeInfo</code>), to facilitate generic code or automatic code generation (usually using compile-time techniques).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Functional">Functional</h4></div>

D supports <a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional programming</a> features such as <a href="Anonymous_function" title="Anonymous function">function literals</a>, <a href="Closure_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Closure (computer science)">closures</a>, recursively-immutable objects and the use of <a href="Higher-order_function" title="Higher-order function">higher-order functions</a>. There are two syntaxes for anonymous functions, including a multiple-statement form and a "shorthand" single-expression notation:<a href="#cite_note-short-14">[14]</a>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-d mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>int function(int) g;

g = (x) { return x * x; }; // longhand

g = (x) => x * x; // shorthand

</pre></div>

There are two built-in types for function literals, <code>function</code>, which is simply a pointer to a stack-allocated function, and <code>delegate</code>, which also includes a pointer to the relevant <a href="Stack_frame" class="mw-redirect" title="Stack frame">stack frame</a>, the surrounding ‘environment’, which contains the current local variables. Type inference may be used with an anonymous function, in which case the compiler creates a <code>delegate</code> unless it can prove that an environment pointer is not necessary. Likewise, to implement a closure, the compiler places enclosed local variables on the <a href="Heap_(data_structure)" title="Heap (data structure)">heap</a> only if necessary (for example, if a closure is returned by another function, and exits that function's scope). When using type inference, the compiler will also add attributes such as <code>pure</code> and <code>nothrow</code> to a function's type, if it can prove that they apply.

Other functional features such as <a href="Currying" title="Currying">currying</a> and common higher-order functions such as <a href="Map_(higher-order_function)" title="Map (higher-order function)">map</a>, <a href="Filter_(higher-order_function)" title="Filter (higher-order function)">filter</a>, and <a href="Fold_(higher-order_function)" title="Fold (higher-order function)">reduce</a> are available through the standard library modules <code>std.functional</code> and <code>std.algorithm</code>.

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-d mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>import std.stdio, std.algorithm, std.range;

void main() {

int[] a1 = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9];

int[] a2 = [6, 7, 8, 9];

// must be immutable to allow access from inside a pure function

immutable pivot = 5;

int mySum(int a, int b) pure nothrow /* pure function */ {

if (b <= pivot) // ref to enclosing-scope

return a + b;

else

return a;

}

// passing a delegate (closure)

auto result = reduce!mySum(chain(a1, a2));

writeln("Result: ", result); // Result: 15

// passing a delegate literal

result = reduce!((a, b) => (b <= pivot) ? a + b : a)(chain(a1, a2));

}

</pre></div>

Alternatively, the above function compositions can be expressed using Uniform function call syntax (UFCS) for more natural left-to-right reading:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-d mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre> auto result = a1.chain(a2).reduce!mySum();

result = a1.chain(a2).reduce!((a, b) => (b <= pivot) ? a + b : a)();

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Parallelism">Parallelism</h4></div>

Parallel programming concepts are implemented in the library, and do not require extra support from the compiler. However the D type system and compiler ensure that data sharing can be detected and managed transparently.

import std.range : iota;

import std.parallelism : parallel;

void main() {

foreach (i; iota(11).parallel) {

// The body of the foreach loop is executed in parallel for each i

writeln("processing ", i);

}

}

</pre></div>

<code>iota(11).parallel</code> is equivalent to <code>std.parallelism.parallel(iota(11))</code> by using UFCS.

The same module also supports <code>taskPool</code> which can be used for dynamic creation of parallel tasks, as well as map-filter-reduce and fold style operations on ranges (and arrays), which is useful when combined with functional operations. <code>std.algorithm.map</code> returns a lazily evaluated range rather than an array. This way, the elements are computed by each worker task in parallel automatically.

import std.algorithm : map;

/* On Intel i7-3930X and gdc 9.3.0:

* 5140ms using std.algorithm.reduce

* 888ms using std.parallelism.taskPool.reduce

*

* On AMD Threadripper 2950X, and gdc 9.3.0:

* 2864ms using std.algorithm.reduce

* 95ms using std.parallelism.taskPool.reduce

*/

void main() {

auto nums = iota(1.0, 1_000_000_000.0);

auto x = taskPool.reduce!"a + b"(

0.0, map!"1.0 / (a * a)"(nums)

);

writeln("Sum: ", x);

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Concurrency">Concurrency</h4></div>

Concurrency is fully implemented in the library, and it does not require support from the compiler. Alternative implementations and methodologies of writing concurrent code are possible. The use of D typing system does help ensure memory safety.

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-d mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>import std.stdio, std.concurrency, std.variant;

void foo() {

bool cont = true;

while (cont) {

receive( // Delegates are used to match the message type.

(int msg) => writeln("int received: ", msg),

(Tid sender) { cont = false; sender.send(-1); },

(Variant v) => writeln("huh?") // Variant matches any type

);

}

}

void main() {

auto tid = spawn(&foo); // spawn a new thread running foo()

tid.send(i); // send some integers

tid.send(1.0f); // send a float

tid.send("hello"); // send a string

tid.send(thisTid); // send a struct (Tid)

receive((int x) => writeln("Main thread received message: ", x));

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Metaprogramming">Metaprogramming</h4></div>

<a href="Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">Metaprogramming</a> is supported through templates, compile-time function execution, <a href="Tuple" title="Tuple">tuples</a>, and string mixins. The following examples demonstrate some of D's compile-time features.

Templates in D can be written in a more imperative style compared to the C++ functional style for templates. This is a regular function that calculates the <a href="Factorial" title="Factorial">factorial</a> of a number:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-d mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>ulong factorial(ulong n) {

if (n < 2)

return 1;

else

return n * factorial(n-1);

}

</pre></div>

Here, the use of <code>static if</code>, D's compile-time conditional construct, is demonstrated to construct a template that performs the same calculation using code that is similar to that of the function above:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-d mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>template Factorial(ulong n) {

static if (n < 2)

else

enum Factorial = n * Factorial!(n-1);

}

</pre></div>

In the following two examples, the template and function defined above are used to compute factorials. The types of constants need not be specified explicitly as the compiler <a href="Type_inference" title="Type inference">infers their types</a> from the right-hand sides of assignments:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-d mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>enum fact_7 = Factorial!(7);

</pre></div>

This is an example of <a href="Compile-time_function_execution" title="Compile-time function execution">compile-time function execution</a> (CTFE). Ordinary functions may be used in constant, compile-time expressions provided they meet certain criteria:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-d mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>enum fact_9 = factorial(9);

</pre></div>

The <code>std.string.format</code> function performs <a href="Printf" title="Printf"><code>printf</code></a>-like data formatting (also at compile-time, through CTFE), and the "msg" <a href="Directive_(programming)" title="Directive (programming)">pragma</a> displays the result at compile time:

pragma(msg, format("7! = %s", fact_7));

pragma(msg, format("9! = %s", fact_9));

</pre></div>

String mixins, combined with compile-time function execution, allow for the generation of D code using string operations at compile time. This can be used to parse <a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">domain-specific languages</a>, which will be compiled as part of the program:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-d mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>import FooToD; // hypothetical module which contains a function that parses Foo source code

// and returns equivalent D code

void main() {

mixin(fooToD(import("example.foo")));

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memory_management">Memory management</h3></div>

Memory is usually managed with <a href="Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" title="Garbage collection (computer science)">garbage collection</a>, but specific objects may be finalized immediately when they go out of scope. This is what the majority of programs and libraries written in D use.

In case more control over memory layout and better performance is needed, explicit memory management is possible using the <a href="Operator_overloading" title="Operator overloading">overloaded operator</a> <code>new</code>, by calling <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>'s <a href="Malloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Malloc">malloc and free</a> directly, or implementing custom allocator schemes (i.e. on stack with fallback, RAII style allocation, reference counting, shared reference counting). Garbage collection can be controlled: programmers may add and exclude memory ranges from being observed by the collector, can disable and enable the collector and force either a generational or full collection cycle.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The manual gives many examples of how to implement different highly optimized memory management schemes for when garbage collection is inadequate in a program.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a>

In functions, <code>struct</code> instances are by default allocated on the stack, while <code>class</code> instances by default allocated on the heap (with only reference to the class instance being on the stack). However this can be changed for classes, for example using standard library template <code>std.typecons.scoped</code>, or by using <code>new</code> for structs and assigning to a pointer instead of a value-based variable.<a href="#cite_note-dlang.org-17">[17]</a>

In functions, static arrays (of known size) are allocated on the stack. For dynamic arrays, one can use the <code>core.stdc.stdlib.alloca</code> function (similar to <code>alloca</code> in C), to allocate memory on the stack. The returned pointer can be used (recast) into a (typed) dynamic array, by means of a slice (however resizing array, including appending must be avoided; and for obvious reasons they must not be returned from the function).<a href="#cite_note-dlang.org-17">[17]</a>

A <code>scope</code> keyword can be used both to annotate parts of code, but also variables and classes/structs, to indicate they should be destroyed (destructor called) immediately on scope exit. Whatever the memory is deallocated also depends on implementation and class-vs-struct differences.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a>

<code>std.experimental.allocator</code> contains a modular and composable allocator templates, to create custom high performance allocators for special use cases.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="SafeD">SafeD</h3></div>

SafeD<a href="#cite_note-SafeD-20">[20]</a>

is the name given to the subset of D that can be guaranteed to be <a href="Memory_safety" title="Memory safety">memory safe</a>. Functions marked <code>@safe</code> are checked at compile time to ensure that they do not use any features, such as pointer arithmetic and unchecked casts, that could result in corruption of memory. Any other functions called must also be marked as <code>@safe</code> or <code>@trusted</code>. Functions can be marked <code>@trusted</code> for the cases where the compiler cannot distinguish between safe use of a feature that is disabled in SafeD and a potential case of memory corruption.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scope_lifetime_safety">Scope lifetime safety</h4></div>

Initially under the banners of DIP1000<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> and DIP25<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> (now part of the language specification<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a>), D provides protections against certain ill-formed constructions involving the lifetimes of data.

The current mechanisms in place primarily deal with function parameters and stack memory however it is a stated ambition of the leadership of the programming language to provide a more thorough treatment of lifetimes within the D programming language<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> (influenced by ideas from <a href="Rust_(programming_language)" title="Rust (programming language)">Rust programming language</a>).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lifetime_safety_of_assignments">Lifetime safety of assignments</h4></div>

Within @safe code, the lifetime of an assignment involving a <a href="Reference_type" class="mw-redirect" title="Reference type">reference type</a> is checked to ensure that the lifetime of the assignee is longer than that of the assigned.

For example:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-d mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>@safe void test() {

int tmp = 0; // #1

int* rad; // #2

rad = &tmp; // If the order of the declarations of #1 and #2 is reversed, this fails.

{

int bad = 45; // The lifetime of "bad" only extends to the scope in which it is defined.

*rad = bad; // This is valid.

rad = &bad; // The lifetime of rad is longer than bad, hence this is not valid.

}

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Function_parameter_lifetime_annotations_within_@safe_code">Function parameter lifetime annotations within @safe code</h4></div>

When applied to function parameter which are either of pointer type or references, the keywords return and scope constrain the lifetime and use of that parameter.

The language standard dictates the following behaviour:<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>

</caption>

<th>Storage Class

</th>

<th>Behaviour (and constraints to) of a parameter with the storage class

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>scope

</td>

<td>References in the parameter cannot be escaped. Ignored for parameters with no references

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>return

</td>

<td>Parameter may be returned (or, in case of <code>void</code> functions: copied to the first parameter), but otherwise does not escape from the function. Such copies are required not to outlive the argument(s) they were derived from. Ignored for parameters with no references

</td></tr></tbody></table>

An annotated example is given below.<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-d mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>@safe:

int* gp;

void thorin(scope int*);

void gloin(int*);

int* balin(return scope int* p, scope int* q, int* r) {

gp = p; // Error, p escapes to global variable gp.

gp = q; // Error, q escapes to global variable gp.

gp = r; // OK.

thorin(p); // OK, p does not escape thorin().

thorin(q); // OK.

thorin(r); // OK.

gloin(p); // Error, p escapes gloin().

gloin(q); // Error, q escapes gloin().

gloin(r); // OK that r escapes gloin().

return p; // OK.

return q; // Error, cannot return 'scope' q.

return r; // OK.

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interaction_with_other_systems">Interaction with other systems</h3></div>

<a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>'s <a href="Application_binary_interface" title="Application binary interface">application binary interface (ABI)</a> is supported, as well as all of C's fundamental and derived types, enabling direct access to existing C code and libraries. D <a href="Language_binding" title="Language binding">bindings</a> are available for many popular C libraries. Additionally, C's standard <a href="Library_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Library (computer science)">library</a> is part of standard D.

On Microsoft Windows, D can access <a href="Component_Object_Model" title="Component Object Model">Component Object Model</a> (COM) code.

As long as memory management is properly taken care of, many other languages can be mixed with D in a single binary. For example, the GDC compiler allows to link and intermix C, C++, and other supported language codes such as Objective-C. D code (functions) can also be marked as using C, C++, Pascal ABIs, and thus be passed to the libraries written in these languages as <a href="Callback_(computer_programming)" title="Callback (computer programming)">callbacks</a>. Similarly data can be interchanged between the codes written in these languages in both ways. This usually restricts use to primitive types, pointers, some forms of arrays, <a href="Union_type" title="Union type">unions</a>, structs, and only some types of function pointers.

Because many other programming languages often provide the C API for writing extensions or running the interpreter of the languages, D can interface directly with these languages as well, using standard C bindings (with a thin D interface file). For example, there are bi-directional bindings for languages like <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>,<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <a href="Lua_(programming_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lua (programming language)">Lua</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> and other languages, often using compile-time code generation and compile-time type reflection methods.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interaction_with_C++_code">Interaction with C++ code</h4></div>

For D code marked as <code>extern(C++)</code>, the following features are specified:

<ul><li>The name mangling conventions shall match those of C++ on the target.</li>

<li>For function calls, the ABI shall be equivalent.</li>

<li>The vtable shall be matched up to single inheritance (the only level supported by the D language specification).</li></ul>

C++ namespaces are used via the syntax <code>extern(C++, namespace)</code> where namespace is the name of the C++ namespace.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="An_example_of_C++_interoperation">An example of C++ interoperation</h5></div>

The C++ side

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-c++ mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>import std;

class Base {

public:

virtual void print3i(int a, int b, int c) = 0;

};

class Derived : public Base {

public:

int field;

Derived(int field):

field(field) {}

void print3i(int a, int b, int c) {

std::println("a = {}", a);

std::println("b = {}", b);

std::println("c = {}", c);

}

int mul(int factor);

};

int Derived::mul(int factor) {

return field * factor;

}

Derived* createInstance(int i) {

return new Derived(i);

}

void deleteInstance(Derived*& d) {

delete d;

d = 0;

}

</pre></div>

The D side

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-d mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>extern(C++) {

abstract class Base {

}

class Derived : Base {

int field;

@disable this();

override void print3i(int a, int b, int c);

final int mul(int factor);

}

Derived createInstance(int i);

void deleteInstance(ref Derived d);

}

void main() {

import std.stdio;

auto d1 = createInstance(5);

writeln(d1.field);

writeln(d1.mul(4));

Base b1 = d1;

b1.print3i(1, 2, 3);

deleteInstance(d1);

assert(d1 is null);

auto d2 = createInstance(42);

writeln(d2.field);

deleteInstance(d2);

assert(d2 is null);

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Better_C">Better C</h3></div>

The D programming language has an official subset known as "Better C".<a href="#cite_note-:0-30">[30]</a> This subset forbids access to D features requiring use of runtime libraries other than that of C.

Enabled via the compiler flags "-betterC" on DMD and LDC, and "-fno-druntime" on GDC, Better C may only call into D code compiled under the same flag (and linked code other than D) but code compiled without the Better C option may call into code compiled with it: this will, however, lead to slightly different behaviours due to differences in how C and D handle asserts.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Features_included_in_Better_C">Features included in Better C</h4></div>

<ul><li>Unrestricted use of compile-time features (for example, D's dynamic allocation features can be used at compile time to pre-allocate D data)</li>

<li>Full metaprogramming facilities</li>

<li>Nested functions, nested structs, delegates and lambdas</li>

<li>Member functions, constructors, destructors, operating overloading, etc.</li>

<li>The full module system</li>

<li>Array slicing, and array bounds checking</li>

<li>scope(exit)</li>

<li>Memory safety protections</li>

<li>Interfacing with C++</li>

<li>COM classes and C++ classes</li>

<li>assert failures are directed to the C runtime library</li>

<li>switch with strings</li>

<li>final switch</li>

<li>unittest blocks</li>

<li>printf format validation</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Features_excluded_from_Better_C">Features excluded from Better C</h4></div>

<ul><li>Garbage collection</li>

<li>TypeInfo and ModuleInfo</li>

<li>Built-in threading (e.g. <code>core.thread</code>)</li>

<li>Dynamic arrays (though slices of static arrays work) and associative arrays</li>

<li>Exceptions</li>

<li>synchronized and <code>core.sync</code></li>

<li>Static module constructors or destructors</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<a href="Walter_Bright" title="Walter Bright">Walter Bright</a> started working on a new language in 1999. D was first released in December 2001<a href="#cite_note-D1_changelog1-1">[1]</a> and reached version 1.0 in January 2007.<a href="#cite_note-D1_changelog2-31">[31]</a> The first version of the language (D1) concentrated on the imperative, object oriented and metaprogramming paradigms,<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> similar to C++.

Some members of the D community dissatisfied with Phobos, D's official <a href="Runtime_library" title="Runtime library">runtime</a> and <a href="Standard_library" title="Standard library">standard library</a>, created an alternative runtime and standard library named Tango. The first public Tango announcement came within days of D 1.0's release.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Tango adopted a different programming style, embracing OOP and high modularity. Being a community-led project, Tango was more open to contributions, which allowed it to progress faster than the official standard library. At that time, Tango and Phobos were incompatible due to different runtime support APIs (the garbage collector, threading support, etc.). This made it impossible to use both libraries in the same project. The existence of two libraries, both widely in use, has led to significant dispute due to some packages using Phobos and others using Tango.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>

In June 2007, the first version of D2 was released.<a href="#cite_note-D2_changelog-35">[35]</a> The beginning of D2's development signaled D1's stabilization. The first version of the language has been placed in maintenance, only receiving corrections and implementation bugfixes. D2 introduced <a href="Breaking_changes" class="mw-redirect" title="Breaking changes">breaking changes</a> to the language, beginning with its first experimental <a href="Const-correctness" class="mw-redirect" title="Const-correctness">const system</a>. D2 later added numerous other language features, such as <a href="Closure_(computer_programming)" title="Closure (computer programming)">closures</a>, <a href="Pure_function" title="Pure function">purity</a>, and support for the functional and concurrent programming paradigms. D2 also solved standard library problems by separating the runtime from the standard library. The completion of a D2 Tango port was announced in February 2012.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>

The release of <a href="Andrei_Alexandrescu" title="Andrei Alexandrescu">Andrei Alexandrescu</a>'s book The D Programming Language on 12 June 2010, marked the stabilization of D2, which today is commonly referred to as just "D".

In January 2011, D development moved from a bugtracker / patch-submission basis to <a href="GitHub" title="GitHub">GitHub</a>. This has led to a significant increase in contributions to the compiler, runtime and standard library.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>

In December 2011, Andrei Alexandrescu announced that D1, the first version of the language, would be discontinued on 31 December 2012.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The final D1 release, D v1.076, was on 31 December 2012.<a href="#cite_note-D1_changelog-39">[39]</a>

Code for the official D compiler, the Digital Mars D compiler by Walter Bright, was originally released under a custom <a href="Software_license" title="Software license">license</a>, qualifying as <a href="Source_available" class="mw-redirect" title="Source available">source available</a> but not conforming to the <a href="Open_Source_Definition" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Source Definition">Open Source Definition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-D-backend-license-40">[40]</a> In 2014, the compiler <a href="Compiler#Front_end" title="Compiler">front-end</a> was <a href="Software_relicensing" title="Software relicensing">re-licensed</a> as <a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">open source</a> under the <a href="Boost_Software_License" class="mw-redirect" title="Boost Software License">Boost Software License</a>.<a href="#cite_note-D-frontend-license-3">[3]</a> This re-licensed code excluded the back-end, which had been partially developed at <a href="NortonLifeLock" class="mw-redirect" title="NortonLifeLock">Symantec</a>. On 7 April 2017, the whole compiler was made available under the Boost license after Symantec gave permission to re-license the back-end, too.<a href="#cite_note-boost-backend-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> On 21 June 2017, the D Language was accepted for inclusion in GCC.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implementations">Implementations</h2></div>

Most current D implementations <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">compile</a> directly into <a href="Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a>.

Production ready compilers:

<ul><li>DMD – The Digital Mars D compiler by Walter Bright is the official D compiler; open sourced under the <a href="Boost_Software_License" class="mw-redirect" title="Boost Software License">Boost Software License</a>.<a href="#cite_note-D-frontend-license-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-boost-backend-4">[4]</a> The DMD frontend is shared by GDC (now in GCC) and LDC, to improve compatibility between compilers. Initially the frontend was written in C++, but now most of it is written in D itself (self-hosting). The backend and machine code optimizers are based on the Symantec compiler. At first it supported only 32-bit x86, with support added for 64-bit amd64 and PowerPC by Walter Bright.</li></ul>

<dl><dd>Bright said in 2020 "The biggest project is implementing the D compiler itself in 100% D".<a href="#cite_note-bright20200526-45">[45]</a> The backend and almost the entire compiler was ported from C++ to D for full <a href="Bootstrapping_(compilers)" title="Bootstrapping (compilers)">bootstrapping</a>.</dd></dl>

<ul><li>GCC – The <a href="GNU_Compiler_Collection" title="GNU Compiler Collection">GNU Compiler Collection</a>, merged GDC<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> into GCC 9 on 29 October 2018.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The first working versions of GDC with GCC, based on GCC 3.3 and GCC 3.4 on 32-bit x86 on Linux and macOS<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> was released on 22 March 2004. Since then GDC has gained support for additional platforms, improved performance, and fixed bugs, while tracking upstream DMD code for the frontend and language specification.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></li>

<li>LDC – A compiler based on the DMD front-end that uses <a href="LLVM" title="LLVM">LLVM</a> as its compiler back-end. The first release-quality version was published on 9 January 2009.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> It supports version 2.0.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></li></ul>

Toy and proof-of-concept compilers:

<ul><li>D Compiler for <a href=".NET" title=".NET">.NET</a> – A back-end for the D programming language 2.0 compiler.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> It compiles the code to <a href="Common_Intermediate_Language" title="Common Intermediate Language">Common Intermediate Language</a> (CIL) bytecode rather than to machine code. The CIL can then be run via a <a href="Common_Language_Infrastructure" title="Common Language Infrastructure">Common Language Infrastructure</a> (CLI) <a href="Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">virtual machine</a>. The project has not been updated in years and the author indicated the project is not active anymore.</li>

<li>SDC – The Snazzy D Compiler<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> uses a custom front-end and <a href="LLVM" title="LLVM">LLVM</a> as its compiler back-end. It is written in D and uses a scheduler to handle symbol resolution in order to elegantly handle the compile-time features of D. This compiler currently supports a limited subset of the language.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></li></ul>

Using above compilers and toolchains, it is possible to compile D programs to target many different architectures, including <a href="IA-32" title="IA-32">IA-32</a>, <a href="Amd64" class="mw-redirect" title="Amd64">amd64</a>, <a href="AArch64" title="AArch64">AArch64</a>, <a href="PowerPC" title="PowerPC">PowerPC</a>, <a href="MIPS64" class="mw-redirect" title="MIPS64">MIPS64</a>, <a href="DEC_Alpha" title="DEC Alpha">DEC Alpha</a>, <a href="M68k" class="mw-redirect" title="M68k">Motorola m68k</a>, <a href="SPARC" title="SPARC">SPARC</a>, <a href="ESA/390" class="mw-redirect" title="ESA/390">s390</a>, <a href="WebAssembly" title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a>. The primary supported operating systems are <a href="Windows" class="mw-redirect" title="Windows">Windows</a> and <a href="Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>, but various compilers also support <a href="Mac_OS_X" class="mw-redirect" title="Mac OS X">Mac OS X</a>, <a href="FreeBSD" title="FreeBSD">FreeBSD</a>, <a href="NetBSD" title="NetBSD">NetBSD</a>, <a href="AIX" class="mw-redirect" title="AIX">AIX</a>, <a href="Solaris_(operating_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solaris (operating system)">Solaris/OpenSolaris</a> and <a href="Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a>, either as a host or target, or both. <a href="WebAssembly" title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a> target (supported via LDC and LLVM) can operate in any WebAssembly environment, like modern web browser (<a href="Google_Chrome" title="Google Chrome">Google Chrome</a>, <a href="Mozilla_Firefox" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozilla Firefox">Mozilla Firefox</a>, <a href="Microsoft_Edge" title="Microsoft Edge">Microsoft Edge</a>, <a href="Apple_Safari" class="mw-redirect" title="Apple Safari">Apple Safari</a>), or dedicated Wasm virtual machines.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_tools">Development tools</h2></div>

Editors and <a href="Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">integrated development environments</a> (IDEs) supporting <a href="Syntax_highlighting" title="Syntax highlighting">syntax highlighting</a> and partial <a href="Intelligent_code_completion" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligent code completion">code completion</a> for the language include <a href="SlickEdit" title="SlickEdit">SlickEdit</a>, <a href="Emacs" title="Emacs">Emacs</a>, <a href="Vim_(text_editor)" title="Vim (text editor)">vim</a>, <a href="SciTE" title="SciTE">SciTE</a>, <a href="Smultron" title="Smultron">Smultron</a>, Zeus,<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> and <a href="Geany" title="Geany">Geany</a> among others.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a>

<ul><li>Dexed (formerly Coedit),<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> a D focused graphical IDE written in <a href="Object_Pascal" title="Object Pascal">Object Pascal</a></li>

<li>Mono-D<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> is a feature rich cross-platform D focused graphical IDE based on <a href="MonoDevelop" title="MonoDevelop">MonoDevelop</a> / Xamarin Studio, mainly written in C Sharp.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></li>

<li><a href="Eclipse_(software)" title="Eclipse (software)">Eclipse</a> plug-ins for D include DDT<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> and Descent (dead project).<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></li>

<li>Visual Studio integration is provided by VisualD.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_Studio_Code" title="Visual Studio Code">Visual Studio Code</a> integration with extensions as Dlang-Vscode<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> or Code-D.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></li>

<li>A bundle is available for <a href="TextMate" title="TextMate">TextMate</a>, and the <a href="Code%3A%3ABlocks" title="Code::Blocks">Code::Blocks</a> IDE includes partial support for the language. However, standard IDE features such as <a href="Code_completion" title="Code completion">code completion</a> or <a href="Refactoring" class="mw-redirect" title="Refactoring">refactoring</a> are not yet available, though they do work partially in Code::Blocks (due to D's similarity to C).</li>

<li>The <a href="Xcode_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Xcode 3">Xcode 3</a> plugin "D for Xcode" enables D-based projects and development.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></li>

<li><a href="KDevelop" title="KDevelop">KDevelop</a> (as well as its text editor backend, Kate) autocompletion plugin is available.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></li>

<li>Dlang IDE is a cross-platform IDE written in D using DlangUI library.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></li></ul>

<a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open source</a> D IDEs for <a href="Windows" class="mw-redirect" title="Windows">Windows</a> exist, some written in D, such as Poseidon,<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> D-IDE,<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> and Entice Designer.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a>

D applications can be debugged using any C/C++ debugger, like <a href="GNU_Debugger" title="GNU Debugger">GNU Debugger</a> (GDB) or <a href="WinDbg" title="WinDbg">WinDbg</a>, although support for various D-specific language features is extremely limited. On Windows, D programs can be debugged using <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070224161328/http://ddbg.mainia.de/">Ddbg</a>, or Microsoft debugging tools (WinDBG and Visual Studio), after having converted the debug information using <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsource.org/projects/cv2pdb">cv2pdb</a>. The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zerobugs.codeplex.com/">ZeroBUGS</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171223130659/http://zerobugs.codeplex.com/">Archived</a> 23 December 2017 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> debugger for Linux has experimental support for the D language. Ddbg can be used with various IDEs or from the command line; ZeroBUGS has its own <a href="Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interface</a> (GUI).

DustMite is a tool for minimizing D source code, useful when finding compiler or tests issues.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a>

dub is a popular package and build manager for D applications and libraries, and is often integrated into IDE support.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

Notable organisations that use the D programming language for projects include <a href="Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>,<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <a href="EBay" title="EBay">eBay</a>,<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> and <a href="Netflix" title="Netflix">Netflix</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a>

D has been successfully used for <a href="AAA_(video_game_industry)" title="AAA (video game industry)">AAA games</a>,<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> language interpreters, virtual machines,<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> an <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> <a href="Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system)">kernel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <a href="Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">GPU</a> programming,<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <a href="Web_development" title="Web development">web development</a>,<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <a href="Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">numerical analysis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <a href="Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">GUI applications</a>,<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> a <a href="Passenger_information_system" title="Passenger information system">passenger information system</a>,<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> machine learning,<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> text processing, web and application servers and research.

The North Korean hacking group <a href="Lazarus_Group" title="Lazarus Group">Lazarus</a> exploited CVE-2021-44228, aka "<a href="Log4Shell" title="Log4Shell">Log4Shell</a>," to deploy three <a href="Malware" title="Malware">malware</a> families written in DLang.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critique">Critique</h2></div>

The lack of transparency, agility and predictability in the process of getting corrections of known flaws and errors incorporated, and the difficulty of introducing minor and major changes to the D language, is eminently described in a blog post article<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> by a former contributor. The apparent frustration described there has led to the OpenD fork<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> on January 1, 2024.

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<ul><li><a href="D_Language_Foundation" title="D Language Foundation">D Language Foundation</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite class="citation book cs1">Alexandrescu, Andrei (4 January 2010). The D Programming Language (1 ed.). Addison-Wesley Professional. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-321-63536-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1">Alexandrescu, Andrei (15 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ddj.com/hpc-high-performance-computing/217801225">"The Case for D"</a>. Dr. Dobb's Journal.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1">Bright, Walter (8 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.drdobbs.com/architecture-and-design/how-i-came-to-write-d/240165322">"How I Came to Write D"</a>. Dr. Dobb's Journal.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1">Çehreli, Ali (1 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ddili.org/ders/d.en/index.html">"Programming in D"</a>.</cite> (distributed under CC-BY-NC-SA license). This book teaches programming to novices, but covers many advanced D topics as well.</li>

<li><cite class="citation magazine cs1">Metz, Cade (7 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/2014/07/d-programming-language/">"The Next Big Programming Language You've Never Heard Of"</a>. Wired.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Ruppe, Adam (May 2014). D Cookbook (1 ed.). PACKT Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-783-28721-5</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A_Beginner%27s_Guide_to_D" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:A Beginner's Guide to D">A Beginner's Guide to D</a></div></div>

</div>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/D_Programming" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:D Programming">D Programming</a></div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dlang.org">Official website</a> </li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalmars.com">Digital Mars</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ddili.org/forum">Turkish Forum</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/dlang">Dlang</a> on <a href="GitHub" title="GitHub">GitHub</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="C_programming_language527" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C programming language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<li><a href="Embedded_C" title="Embedded C">Embedded C</a></li>

<li><a href="MISRA_C" title="MISRA C">MISRA C</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Subroutine" class="mw-redirect" title="Subroutine">Functions</a></li>

<li><a href="Include_directive#C" title="Include directive">Header files</a></li>

<li><a href="Operators_in_C_and_C%2B%2B" title="Operators in C and C++">Operators</a></li>

<li><a href="C_string_handling" title="C string handling">String</a></li>

<li><a href="C_syntax" title="C syntax">Syntax</a></li>

<li><a href="C_preprocessor" title="C preprocessor">Preprocessor</a></li>

<li><a href="C_data_types" title="C data types">Data types</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="C_standard_library" title="C standard library">Standard library</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="C_dynamic_memory_allocation" title="C dynamic memory allocation">Dynamic memory</a></li>

<li><a href="C_string_handling" title="C string handling">String</a></li>

<li><a href="Stdarg.h" title="Stdarg.h">Variadic</a></li>

<li><a href="C_POSIX_library" title="C POSIX library">POSIX</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Implementations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bionic_(software)" title="Bionic (software)">Bionic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Hybris_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hybris (software)">libhybris</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Dietlibc" title="Dietlibc">dietlibc</a></li>

<li><a href="Glibc" title="Glibc">glibc</a>

<ul><li><a href="Embedded_GLIBC" class="mw-redirect" title="Embedded GLIBC">EGLIBC</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Klibc" title="Klibc">klibc</a></li>

<li><a href="Microsoft_Windows_library_files" title="Microsoft Windows library files">Windows CRT</a></li>

<li><a href="Newlib" title="Newlib">Newlib</a></li>

<li><a href="UClibc" title="UClibc">uClibc</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_C_compilers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of C compilers">Compilers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Borland_Turbo_C" class="mw-redirect" title="Borland Turbo C">Borland Turbo C</a></li>

<li><a href="Clang" title="Clang">Clang</a></li>

<li><a href="Norcroft_C_compiler" title="Norcroft C compiler">Norcroft C</a></li>

<li><a href="Microsoft_Visual_C%2B%2B" title="Microsoft Visual C++">Visual C++ (MSVC)</a></li>

<li><a href="Watcom_C/C%2B%2B" title="Watcom C/C++">Watcom C/C++</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">IDEs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anjuta" title="Anjuta">Anjuta</a></li>

<li><a href="CLion" class="mw-redirect" title="CLion">CLion</a></li>

<li><a href="Code%3A%3ABlocks" title="Code::Blocks">Code::Blocks</a></li>

<li><a href="CodeLite" title="CodeLite">CodeLite</a></li>

<li><a href="Eclipse_(software)" title="Eclipse (software)">Eclipse</a></li>

<li><a href="Geany" title="Geany">Geany</a></li>

<li><a href="GNOME_Builder" title="GNOME Builder">GNOME Builder</a></li>

<li><a href="KDevelop" title="KDevelop">KDevelop</a></li>

<li><a href="NetBeans" title="NetBeans">NetBeans</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_Studio" title="Visual Studio">Visual Studio</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Comparison with other languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Compatibility_of_C_and_C%2B%2B" title="Compatibility of C and C++">Compatibility of C and C++</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_Pascal_and_C" title="Comparison of Pascal and C">Comparison with Pascal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Descendant languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Objective-C" title="Objective-C">Objective-C</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Designer</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dennis_Ritchie" title="Dennis Ritchie">Dennis Ritchie</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-08-04" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=D_(programming_language)&oldid=1304232304">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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